<펌>Kumyks

Kumyks

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Abdul-Wahab son of Mustafa — a prominent Kumyk architect of the 19th century.

near 600,000

503,060[1] (2010)

10,000[2]

718[3] (2001)

1200[4] (2016)

481[5] (2009)

360[6] (2009)

33[7] (2020)

Kumyk language

Sunni Islam

Crimean Tatars, Balkars, Karachays[8]

KumyksKumyk: къумукълар, qumuqlarTotal populationRegions with significant populations

 Russia

 Turkey

 Ukraine

 Uzbekistan

 Kazakhstan

 Belarus

 LatviaLanguagesReligionRelated ethnic groups

 

Kumyks (Kumyk: Къумукълар, romanized: Qumuqlar, Russian: Кумыки) are a Turkic people, indigenous to Dagestan, Chechnya and North Ossetia,[9][10]. They are the largest Turkic people in the North Caucasus.

 

They traditionally populate the Kumyk plateau (northern Dagestan and north-eastern Chechnya), lands bordering the Caspian Sea, areas in North Ossetia, Chechnya and along the banks of the Terek river. They speak the Kumyk language, which until 1930s had been the lingua-franca of the Northern Caucasus.

 

Territories where Kumyks have traditionally lived, and where their historical state entities used to exist, are called Kumykia[11][12][13] (Kumyk: Къумукъ, Qumuq).[14] All of the lands populated by Kumyks once used to be a part of an independent regional power - the Kumyk state of Tarki Shamkhalate.[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23]

 

Contents

• 1 Population and present settlement area
  • 1.1 Russian Federation
  • 1.2 Turkey and the Middle East
• 2 Ethnonym
• 3 Origin
• 4 History
  • 4.1 Expansion of the Russian state, Ottoman Empire and Persia
    • 4.1.1 Resistance to Peter I.
  • 4.2 Caucasian War
  • 4.3 Dissolution of Shamkhalate and the Kumyk okrug (district)
  • 4.4 1916 revolt, Russian Revolution, Soviet and Modern times
    • 4.4.1 Deportation
• 5 Anthropology
• 6 Language
• 7 In Russian and European classical literature
• 8 See also
• 9 References
• 10 Further reading
• 11 External links

 

Population and present settlement area

 

Kumyks comprise 14% of the population of the Republic of Dagestan, the third-largest population of Chechnya, and the fifth-largest population of North Ossetia, all of which are parts of the Russian Federation.[24]

 

Kumyks are the second largest Turkic-speaking ethnic group after Azerbaijanis in the Causasus, the largest Turkic people of the North Caucasus and the third largest ethnic group of Dagestan.

 

According to the Russian national census of 2010 there were more than 500,000 Kumyks in Russia.

 

 

Russian Federation

Dagestan	365,804[26]	431,736
Tyumen oblast	12,343[27]	18,668
Northern Ossetia	12,659[28]	16,092
Khanty-Mansi autonomous okrug	9,554[29]	13,849
Chechnya	8,883[30]	12,221
Yamal-Nenets autonomous okrug	2,613[31]	4,466
Stavropol krai	5,744[32]	5,639
Moscow	1,615[33]	2,351
Moscow oblast	818[34]	1,622
Astrakhan oblast	1,356[35]	1,558
Rostov oblast	1,341[36]	1,511
Volgograd oblast	895[37]	1,018
the table contains regions with the population exceeding 1000 people only.

Russian'a territorial subject (krai, oblast, republic etc.) Population2002 2010[25]

 

Turkey and the Middle East

 

In the 19th century, during and following the Caucasian War, numbers of Kumyks were subject to or willingly resettled (made hijra) to the Ottoman Empire.[38] as a result of Russian deportation campaigns in the region.

 

In the 1910s-1920s, during the Bolshevik Revolution, another emigration wave to Turkey took place. Among muhajirs of that period were prominent Kumyk nobility.[39][40]

Kumyk population in its native areas of the Northern Caucasus

 

Kumyks also used to move to Syria and Jordan, where a few Kumyk families still live.[41] The Syrian village of Dar-Ful was established in 1878-1880 by Kumyk emigrants.[42][43]

 

There is no official state census of ethnic minorities in Turkey (ethnic or racial censuses are outlawed), but according to the studies of 1994—1996, there were more than 20 settlements with Kumyk population.[44][45]

 

Ethnonym

 

The majority of researchers (Bakikhanov, S.A. Tokarev, A.I. Tamay, S. Sh. Gadzhieva) derive the name "Kumyk" from a Turkic ethnonym Kimak, or from another name for Kipchaks — Cuman.[46]

 

According to P. Uslar, in the 19th century the names "Kumyk" and "Kumuk" pertained to Turkic speaking population of the Northern Caucasian lowlands.[47] In Dagestan, Chechnya and Ingushetia the name Kumyk or originally Kumuk pertained to the Kumyks only.[47] Y. Fyodorov wrote, based on sources from the 8–19 cc., that "Gumik — Kumyk — Kumuk" is originally a Dagestanian toponym from the Middle Ages.[48]

 

In various Russian, European, Ottoman and Persian sources Kumyks were also called Dagestan Tatars,[49] Caucasus Tatars,[50] Circassians.[51] Although today "Circassians" often means Adyghe people, until early 19th century the name used to pertain to Caucasian Turkic peoples[52] and Terek Tatars.[53]

 

Origin

 

There is no univocal opinion regarding the origin of Kumyks. Some proposed that population of Kumyk plains of the 8th-10th centuries were directly ancestral to modern Kumyks.[54] A view close to that is that Kumyks appeared in Dagestan along with Khazars in the 8th century and stayed afterwards.[55] Some assume, that Kumyks appeared in Dagestan in the 12th-13th centuries along with Kipchaks.[56]

 

Kumyk verbal tradition carried through ages some proverbs and sayings coming from the times of the Khazar Kaghanate.[57]

S. Tokarev wrote that:[58]

...Kumyks have very diverse ancestry. Its ancient stratum is, undoubtedly, pre-Turkic, Japhetic. There is an opinion that people of Kami, Kamaks, mentioned as long ago as by Ptolemaeus, are historically related to Kumyks. Their turkization started at the times of Khazars already, in the second half of the first millennium... Arrival of Cumans extended Turkic element further. That time point, marked by dissolution of the Khazar Kaghanate, is likely to be the period of the core formation for Kumyks, although some researchers (Bartold) linked their appearance to the latter period, when remains of Cumans defeated by Mongols fled to the lands of Dagestan.

 

A modern interpretation was proposed that "from the Turkified Lezginians Kumyks also emerged" (by Lezginians meaning mountainous inhabitants of Dagestan).[59][60]

 

However, the prominent professor of the Caucasus studies L. Lavrov doubted "Turkification" version of Kumyks:[61]

It's unlikely that Kumyks might be Turkified Dagestanians, as some claim. Rather, their ancestors are considered to be Kipchaks, Khazars and, probably, other Turks of the early Middle Ages. It would be preferable to also identify whether Kamaks, who used to be settled in the North Dagestan in the beginning of our era, are related to Kumyks.

 

Another prominent Russian Orientalist V. Minorsky proposed his adjustment to the views mentioned, stating that:[62]

Today's Kumyk Turks, who populate North Eastern part of Dagestan, along the shore, possibly come from the basic Khazar stratum, strengthened and assimilated by the later re-settlers from the Kipchak steppes.

 

The final stages of the Kumyk ethnicity formation stretched from the XII–XVII centuries.[63]

 

Some of Turkic peoples who blended into the Kumyk nation were those of Tumens from the Tumen Khanate (Caucasian Tumen), which emerged in the 15th century as a fragment of the dissolved Golden Horde; and those of Borogans, As people[64] and pre-Cuman Turks,[65] who populated Boragan-Madjar region, which in the 7th century encompassed vast North Caucasian plains.[66]

 

History

Rifle of the Kumyk Shamhal of Tarki, 19th century, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New-York

 

Kumyks historically were related to the states of Caucasian Huns, Cuman-Kipchaks, and the Golden Horde.[65][67][68]

The beginning of the Kumyk nation is often considered to be the times of Khazar Kaganate.[69][61]

Starting from the Medieval times Kumyks formed a few feudal states. Until the 19th centuries AD the Kumyks were a largely feudal, decentralized entity of strategical geographic and political importance for Russia, Persia and the Ottomans,[70][71] headed by a leader called Shamkhal (originally Shawkhal, in Russian sources Shevkal) — Shamkhalate, which is mentioned as early as in the 14th century by the Timurid historians.[72]

Amongst the other feudal entities were such as Endirey Principality,[73] Utamish Soltanate,[74] Tumen Possession,[75] Braguny Principality,[75] Mekhtuly Khanate,[76] Kaytag Uzminate[77] and others.[77]

 

Expansion of the Russian state, Ottoman Empire and Persia

In the 16th century Kumyk rulers tried to balance their relationships with the three neighbouring states, the Shamkhalate established itself as a considerable regional power. The two Empires and yet-to-be one Russian state considered the Caspian area as their influence domain.

Shamkhal Chopan became a subject of the Ottoman Empire in the late 16th century, and participated in the 1578-1590th Ottoman-Persian war.[78]

1560s are marked as the start of the numerous campaigns of the Russian troops against Kumyks, provoked by the requests of Georgians and Kabardians. Commander Cheremisinov seized and plundered the capital of Tarki in 1560. Tumen khanate in the alliance with the Shamkhalate also resisted the invasion but in 1588 ceased its existence; at the location of its capital Russians established the Terki stronghold (do not mistake for Tarki). Tumen ruler Soltaney fled to the pan-Caucasian hero Sultan-Mahmud of Endirey.[79] In 1594 the other Campaign of Khvorostinin in Dagestan was organised, during which Russian forces and Terek Cossacks seized Tarki again, but were blocked by the Kumyk forces and forced to retreat to Terki, which resulted in a stampede.

In 1604—1605 one more Campaign of Buturlin in Dagestan was conducted, famously known as the Shevkal Campaign. This also failed and resulted in a significant loss for Russian on the field of Karaman, known as The Battle of Karaman. The joined forces of the Dagestani peoples under the banners of the Kumyk Shamkhalian, Prince Soltan-Mahmud of Endirey prevailed, and according to the prominent Russian historian Karamzin stopped Russian expansion for the next 118 years until the rule of Peter I.[80]

In 1649 and 1650 Nogai leader Choban-murza nomadised away to the allied Shamkhalate. Russian sovereigns pursuing Nogais sent 8,000 men in order to force Nogais to return. Surkhay-Shawkhal III attacked and routed Russian troops in The Battle of Germenchik.[81] Developing success, in 1651 and 1653 Kumyks, this time in alliance with Safavid forces, destroid Russian fortress at the river Sunzha. Iranian Shah Abbas II though intended to strengthen Persian foot on the Kumyk lands, which didn't match with Surkhay's plans. In alliance with Kaytag Uzmi (a title of a local feudal) Rustem, Surkhay III confronts Persians but concedes. Nevertheless, high losses disrupted Shah's intentions of building fortresses in the Kumyk lands.[82]

Resistance to Peter I.

In the XVIII century Russian Emperor Peter I organised Persian Campaign of the 1722—1723. Endirey principality was the first to oppose the Russian forces, and despite the defeat, caused great losses which shocked the Emperor.[83] Kumyks of the Utamish Soltanate feudal entity, also according to the Peter's officers, fiercely resisted at The Battle at the River Inchge. Peter I stated afterwards:[84]

Roubaud, Peter I in Tarki, the Capital of Tarki Shamkhalate

If these people had a comprehension of the Military Science [Art], no other nation could take arms against them.

The Tarki Shamkhalate initially took a pro-Russian stance, but after a new Russian fortress had been built they confronted Russia again. However, this time Shamkhals couldn't unite the neighboring local peoples and remained alone in the struggle. Russian historian Sergey Solovyov wrote:[85]

In October 1725 general-majors Kropotov and Sheremetev embarked to devastate the possessions of the Shamkhal and burned down twenty settlements, including Tarki, the capital of the Shamkhal, which comprised 1,000 households; the total number of destroyed households amounts to 6,110. Shamkhal, having only 3,000 troops, couldn't resist the overwhelming number of Russians, who had in their ranks 8,000 Cossacks and Kalmyks only, not counting the regular troops, and two infantry regiments and two cavalries; Adil-Girey [Shamkhal] left Tarki and together with the Turkish ambassador had sent letters to other mountaineer possessors, asking for help, but got a refusal.

Caucasian War

Main article: Caucasian War

Fragment of the Caucasus map with Kumyk lands (Land der Kumuken and Dagestan Tataren) by F. Bandtre. Printed by Druck und Verlag von C. Flemming in Glogau, 1855

Russian 19th century general Gregory Phillipson , known for his important actions in subjugating Adyghe and Abaza ethnic groups at the left flank of the Caucasian front in Circassia, wrote:

I had vague knowledge about Caucasia and the Caucasian war, although professor Yazikov on the lectures in the military geography used to tell about one and the other; and according to his words it turned out that the most valiant and inimical to us tribe was that of the Kumyks.

Kumyks were one of the major forces in the late 18th century Sheikh Mansur's insurgence. Kumyk prince Chepalow in alliance with Mansur attacked a few times the Russian stronghold of Kizlyar. In the decisive battle Mansur led the Kumyk forces himself.[86] Despite the formal acceptance of the Russian sovereignty over the Shamkhals at the beginning of the Caucasian war (resulting from the Treaty of Gulistan), there were numerous revolts in Kumykia. In 1825 the village of [Old] Aksay was destroyed and 300 men from the settlement were gathered for their participation in the insurgence against Russian Empire led by the Chechen leader Taymiyev Biybolat, and murdered when one of the Kumyks Ochar-Haji killed two Russian generals at the spot.[87] In the same year the people of Endirey called the peoples of mountaineer communities to the mutual resistance.[88]

In total, there were at least five revolts in Shamkhalate and on the Kumyk plateau (called also Kumyk plains): anti-Russian revolt, resulting in the defeat of Northern Kumyks (Endirey and Aksay principalities) and then-disestablished Mekhtula Khanate,[89] Shamkhalate Revolt of the 1823,[90] participation in Beybulat Taymiyev's revolt (who though shortly beforehand pledged allegiance to Russia),[91] Shamkhalate Revolt of the 1831,[92] the revolt at the Kumyk plains in the 1831 and one more Shamkhalate Revolt of the 1843.[93]

There were also preparations for an insurgency on the Kumyk plains in 1844 and for the general Kumyk insurgence in 1855,[94] which had been planned as a joined action with the advance of imam Shamil, but the advance didn't progress enough to the Kumyk lands.[94] In the insurgency in Dagestan in 1877-1878, one of the major centres of conflict was the village of Bashly.[94]

Despite the devastation brought by the Imperial Army for the attempts to rise against Russia,[95] Kumyk plains were also exposed to plundering forays from the neighboring tribes. For instance, one of Chechen leader, Avko, in 1830 gathered forces in a call to allegedly join troops of the leader of the Caucasian resistance, Gazi-Muhammad, but at the last moment declared the true reason "to use the opportunity to attack the city of Endirey and plunder Kumyks' cattle". However, the troops disbanded in disappointment.[96] Gazi-Muhammad himself tried to make Kumyks resettle higher in the mountains from the plains and join his resistance by destroying Kumyk settlements, as it's stated in the Russian military archives:[95]

Kazi-mulla, trying to hold Kumyks close, came up with a strange trick: destroying their auls [settlements] in order to force them to resettle in the mountains by depriving of living spaces. On the 24th of July he, in front of our troops, made the first experiment on Endirey village and burned down the third of it. Prince [Knyaz] Bekovich [Russian officer] at that time was burning Kumyks' bread at the slopes of the mountains...

During the Caucasian War Kumyks found themselves between a rock and a hard place, not always supported by the insurgents on one hand, and being a target of retaliation from Russians on the other. Same archives say:

...Kazi-mulla... used all the means to push away from us the population of the Small Chechnya and Kachkalik ridge, which however remained loyal to us only by their appearance, and namely because they didn't want to get between two fires as Kumyks did.

Kumyks during the War gave the Caucasus many common heroes. Imam of Dagestan and Chechnya Shamil was of the Kumyk descent,[97][98][99] as well as his companion and the second pretender to the Imam's position Tashaw-Hadji.[94][100][101][102] Besides, Kumyks were the leaders of the earlier Dagestanian revolts such as Soltan Ahmed-Khan of Avars, and Umalat-bek of Boynak (the heir of Tarki throne), companion of the imam Gazi-Muhammad Razibek of Kazanish, trusted companion of the Imam Shamil — Idris of Endirey.

 

Dissolution of Shamkhalate and the Kumyk okrug (district)

 

With the Caucasian War ended, on the 30th of December 1869, the Kumyk district of the Terek oblast (Northern Kumykia) was dissolved and renamed as Khasavyurt okrug. At the end of 1870, the entire southern part of the Khasavyurt district, from Gerzel-aul to Endirey, was populated by Chechens by the Russian decrees. From 1870 until 1877, the number of Chechens in native Kumyk area increased from 5,912 to 14,000 and continued to grow to 18,128 in 1897.[103]

According to The Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, issued at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries, there were 32,087 thousand Kumyks in Dagestan (which at that tim did not comprised the Northern Kumykia[104]). And according to the 1891 data, 108,800 Kumyks lived in the Dagestan and Terek oblasts of the Russian Empire.[105]

Somewhat earlier, in 1867 the Tarki Shamkhalate was abolished by the Russian authorities, which might be considered as the end of the Kumyk statehood.

 

1916 revolt, Russian Revolution, Soviet and Modern times

 

Haidar Bammate, one of the founders of the North Caucasian Republic

In mid-July 1916 (late July 1916 N.S.), Kumyk rebels rose up against Russian authorities in Aksay [ru]. The cause of the uprising laid in the Kumyk's unwillingness to be conscripted into the Russian Imperial Army. The uprising ended on 24 July (6 August N.S.), when the draft was cancelled.[106]

During the times of the establishment of Soviets, Kumyk political elite were an active part in the creation of the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus.[107] Haydar Bammate was the Minister of Foreign Affairs and one of the ideologists of the state, Prince Rashitkhan Kaplan was the Minister of Internal Affairs, one of the major military leaders was prince Nuh-bek Tarkovskiy, Zubair Temirhanov was the speaker of the Alliance Council ("Mejlis", similar to Parliament) of the Republic.

In 1926 the Soviet Population Census stated that there were 94 549 Kumyks in the Russian empire, indicating demographic crisis,[108] compared to the 1891 data.

Due to the continuous resettlement policies by the Russian Empire, then the Soviet government, continuing today in the modern Republic of Dagestan of the Russian Federation, during the XIX-XXI centuries the native territories of Kumyks have been dramatically reduced; Kumyks became a minority on their own lands.[109][103]

Deportation

By the decree of Stalin's government on the 12 of April 1944 Kumyk population of historical Kumyk capital Tarki and adjacent villages was deported to the lands of entirely deported to the Central Asian SSRs (Chechens, Karachays, Balkars and Crimean Tatars also were deported). The reason was stated as "freeing the area for the agricultural needs" of mountain peoples being resettled in the region. The deportation, despite the historical record in Russian law, is still not acknowledged by the Russian government. As a result of this event, the local population lost for years their ancient capital of Tarki, which led to the permanent destruction of the most of the Kumyk cultural inheritance.[110]

Anthropology

Anthropologically Kumyks represent Caucasian racial group, its Caspian subgroup.[111][112]

Language

Main article: Kumyk language

Kumyks speak the Kumyk language, which is a part of Kipchak-Cuman subfamily of the Kipchak family of the Turkic languages. It's a direct descendant of the Khazar languages and in addition contains words from the Bulghar and Oghuz substratum.[113]

Nikolay Baskakov, based on a famous 12th century scripture named Codex Cimanicus, included modern Kumyk, Karachai-Balkar, Crimean Tatar, Karaim, and the language of Mamluk Kipchaks in lingual family of the Cuman-Kipchak language. Samoylovich also considered Cuman-Kipchak close to Kumyk and Karachai-Balkar.[114]

Kumyk had been a lingua-franca of the bigger part of the Northern Caucasus, from Dagestan to Kabarda, until the 1930s.[115][116][117]

In 1848, a professor of the "Caucasian Tatar" (Kumyk) Timofey Makarov published the first ever grammatical book in Russian language for one of the Northern Caucasian languages - which was international Kumyk. Makarov wrote:[118]

From the peoples speaking Tatar language I liked the most Kumyks, as for their language's distinction and precision, so for their closeness to the European civilization, but most importantly, I take in account that they live on the Left Flank of the Caucasian Front, where we're conducting military actions, and where all the peoples, apart from their own language, speak also Kumyk.

Kumyk was an official language of communication between North-Eastern Caucasian nations and Russian administration.[119]

Amongst the dialects of the Kumyk there are Kaitag, Terek (Güçük-yurt and Braguny), Buynaksk (Temir-Khan-Shura) and Xasavyurt. The latter two became basis for the literary language.[120]

Kumyk is the oldest script literary language of Dagestan and Caucasus. During the 20th century the writing system of the language was changed twice: during Soviet times in 1929 traditional Arabic script (called ajam) was substituted by the Latin script, and then in 1938 — by Cyrillic script.

The closest languages to Kumyk are Karachai-Balkar, Crimean Tatar, and Karaim languages.[121]

More than 90% of the Kumyks, according to 2010 census, also speak Russian, and those in Turkey and the Levant (Sham) speak Turkish and Arabic.

In Russian and European classical literature

The Kumyk language was a subject of studies for Russian classical authors as Leo Tolstoy[122] and Mikhail Lermontov,[123] both of whom served in the Caucasus. The language is present in such works of Tolstoy as "The Raid",[124] Cossacks,[125] Hadji Murat, and Lermontov's - "A Hero of Our Time",[126][123] Bestuzhev-Marlinsky's - "Molla-nur" and "Ammalat-bek".

German poet Fleming, travelling together with Holstein embassy through Kumyk lands in 1633 and 1636, had dedicated to Kumykia and its towns a few verses.[127][128]

See also

• List of Kumyk people

References