At its peak during the 14th century, the city was the capital of the Novgorod Republic and was one of Europe's largest cities.[15]The "Veliky" ("great") part was added to the city's name in 1999.
The oldest archaeological excavations in the middle to late 20th century, however, have found cultural layers dating back to the late 10th century, the time of theChristianization of Rus'and a century after it was allegedly founded.[16]Archaeological dating is fairly easy and accurate to within 15–25 years, as the streets were paved with wood, and most of the houses made of wood, allowingtree ring dating.
The Varangian name of the city Holmgård or Holmgard (Holmgarðr or Holmgarðir) is mentioned in Norse Sagas as existing at a yet earlier stage, but the correlation of this reference with the actual city is uncertain.[17]Originally,Holmgårdreferred to the stronghold, now only 2 km (1.2 miles) to the south of the center of the present-day city,Rurikovo Gorodische (named in comparatively modern times after the Varangian chieftain Rurik, who supposedly made it his "capital" around 860). Archaeological data suggests that the Gorodishche, the residence of theKnyaz(prince), dates from the mid-9th century,[18]whereas the town itself dates only from the end of the 10th century; hence the name Novgorod, "new city", fromOld East SlavicНовъandГородъ(NovandGorod); the Old Norse termNýgarðris acalqueof anOld Russianword. First mention of this Norse etymology to the name of the city of Novgorod (and that of other cities within the territory of the thenKievan Rus') occurs in the 10th-century policy manualDe Administrando ImperiobyByzantineemperorConstantine VII.
Cathedral of St. Sophia, a symbol of the city and the main cathedral of the Novgorod Republic
In 882, Rurik's successor, Oleg of Novgorod, conquered Kiev and founded the state of Kievan Rus'. Novgorod's size as well as its political, economic, and cultural influence made it the second most important city in Kievan Rus'. According to a custom, the elder son and heir of the ruling Kievan monarch was sent to rule Novgorod even as a minor. When the ruling monarch had no such son, Novgorod was governed byposadniks, such as the legendaryGostomysl,Dobrynya,Konstantin, andOstromir.
Of all their princes, Novgorodians most cherished the memory ofYaroslav the Wise, who sat as Prince of Novgorod from 1010 to 1019, while his father,Vladimir the Great, was a prince in Kiev. Yaroslav promulgated the first written code of laws (later incorporated intoRusskaya Pravda) among the Eastern Slavs and is said to have granted the city a number of freedoms or privileges, which they often referred to in later centuries as precedents in their relations with other princes. His son,Vladimir, sponsored construction of the greatSt. Sophia Cathedral, more accurately translated as the Cathedral of Holy Wisdom, which stands to this day.
The Gotland town of Visby functioned as the leading trading center in the Baltic before the Hansa League. At Novgorod in 1080, Visby merchants established a trading post which they named Gutagard (also known as Gotenhof).[21]Later, in the first half of the 13th century, merchants from northern Germany also established their own trading station in Novgorod, known as Peterhof.[22] At about the same time, in 1229, German merchants at Novgorod were granted certain privileges, which made their position more secure.[23]
In 1136, the Novgorodians dismissed their princeVsevolod Mstislavich. The year is seen as the traditional beginning of theNovgorod Republic. The city was able to invite and dismiss a number of princes over the next two centuries, but the princely office was never abolished and powerful princes, such asAlexander Nevsky, could assert their will in the city regardless of what Novgorodians said.[24]The city state controlled most of Europe's northeast, from lands east of today's Estonia to the Ural Mountains, making it one of the largest states in medieval Europe, although much of the territory north and east of LakesLadogaandOnegawas sparsely populated and never organized politically.
One of the most important local figures in Novgorod was theposadnik, or mayor, an official elected by the public assembly (called theVeche) from among the city'sboyars, or aristocracy. Thetysyatsky, or "thousandman", originally the head of the town militia but later a commercial and judicial official, was also elected by theVeche. Another important local official was theArchbishop of Novgorodwho shared power with the boyars.[25]Archbishops were elected by theVecheorby the drawing of lots, and after their election, were sent to themetropolitanfor consecration.[26]
While a basic outline of the various officials and theVechecan be drawn up, the city-state's exact political constitution remains unknown. The boyars and the archbishop ruled the city together, although where one official's power ended and another's began is uncertain. The prince, although his power was reduced from around the middle of the 12th century, was represented by hisnamestnik, or lieutenant, and still played important roles as a military commander, legislator and jurist. The exact composition of theVeche, too, is uncertain, with some historians, such asVasily Klyuchevsky, claiming it was democratic in nature, while later scholars, such asMarxistsValentin Ianin and Aleksandr Khoroshev, see it as a "sham democracy" controlled by the ruling elite.
In the 13th century, Novgorod, while not a member of theHanseatic League, was the easternmostkontor, orentrepôt, of the league, being the source of enormous quantities of luxury (sable,ermine,fox,marmot) and non-luxury furs (squirrel pelts).[27]
Throughout the Middle Ages, the city thrived culturally. A large number of birch bark letters have been unearthed in excavations, perhaps suggesting widespread literacy. It was in Novgorod that the Novgorod Codex, the oldest Slavic book written north of Bulgaria, and the oldest inscription in a Finnic language (Birch bark letter no. 292) were unearthed. Some of the most ancient Russian chronicles (Novgorod First Chronicle) were written in the scriptorium of the archbishops who also promoted iconography and patronized church construction. The Novgorod merchantSadkobecame a popular hero of Russianfolklore.
Novgorod was never conquered by the Mongols during the Mongol invasion of Rus. The Mongol army turned back about 200 kilometers (120 mi) from the city, not because of the city's strength, but probably because the Mongol commanders did not want to get bogged down in the marshlands surrounding the city. However, the grand princes of Moscow, who acted as tax collectors for the khans of the Golden Horde, did collect tribute in Novgorod, most notablyYury Danilovichand his brother,Ivan Kalita.
The 16th century Vision of Tarasius icon depicts Novgorod with the Sofia side to the left and the Commercial side to the right. The inhabitants of the city are shown doing their day-to-day work while being guarded by the angels
In 1259,Mongoltax-collectors and census-takers arrived in the city, leading to political disturbances and forcingAlexander Nevskyto punish a number of town officials (hecut off their noses) for defying him asGrand Prince of Vladimir(soon to be the khan's tax-collector in Russia) and his Mongol overlords. In the 14th century, raids by Novgorodpirates, orushkuiniki,[28]sowed fear as far asKazanandAstrakhan, assisting Novgorod in wars with the Grand Duchy of Moscow.
During the era of Old Rus' State, Novgorod was a trade hub at the northern end of both the Volga trade route and the "route from the Varangians to the Greeks" along the Dnieper river system. A vast array of goods were transported along these routes and exchanged with local Novgorod merchants and other traders. The farmers of Gotland retained the Saint Olof trading house well into the 12th century. Later German merchantmen also established tradinghouses in Novgorod. Scandinavian royalty would intermarry with Russian princes and princesses.
After thegreat schism, Novgorod struggled from the beginning of the 13th century againstSwedish,Danish, and German crusaders. During theSwedish-Novgorodian Wars, the Swedes invaded lands where some of the population had earlierpaid tributeto Novgorod. The Germans had been trying to conquer theBaltic regionsince the late 12th century. Novgorod went to war 26 times with Sweden and 11 times with the Livonian Brothers of the Sword. The Germanknights, along with Danish and Swedish feudal lords, launched a series of uncoordinated attacks in 1240–1242. Novgorodian sources mention that a Swedish army was defeated in theBattle of the Nevain 1240. The Baltic German campaigns ended in failure after theBattle on the Icein 1242. After the foundation of the castle ofViborgin 1293 the Swedes gained a foothold inKarelia. On August 12, 1323, Sweden and Novgorod signed the Treaty of Nöteborg, regulating their border for the first time.
The city's downfall occurred partially as a result of its inability to feed its large population,[citation needed]making it dependent on theVladimir-Suzdalregion for grain. The main cities in the area,MoscowandTver, used this dependence to gain control over Novgorod. EventuallyIvan IIIforcibly annexed the city to theGrand Duchy of Moscowin 1478.
TheVechewas dissolved and a significant part of Novgorod's aristocracy, merchants and smaller landholding families was deported to central Russia. The Hanseatic League kontor was closed in 1494 and the goods stored there were seized by Muscovite forces.[29][30]
Kremlin square on postcard of the early XX century
At the time of annexation, Novgorod became the third largest city underMuscovyand then theTsardom of Russia(with 5,300 homesteads and 25–30 thousand inhabitants in the 1550s[31]) and remained so until the famine of the 1560s and theMassacre of Novgorodin 1570. In the Massacre,Ivan the Terriblesacked the city, slaughtered thousands of its inhabitants, and deported the city's merchant elite and nobility to Moscow,Yaroslavland elsewhere. The last decade of the 16th century was a comparatively favourable period for the city asBoris Godunovrestored trade privileges and raised the status of Novgorod bishop. The German trading post was reestablished in 1603.[32]Even after the incorporation into the Russian state Novgorod land retained its distinct identity and institutions, including the customs policy and administrative division. Certain elective offices were quickly restored after having been abolished by Ivan III.[33]
During theTime of Troubles, Novgorodians submitted toSwedishtroops led byJacob De la Gardiein the summer of 1611. The city was restituted to Muscovy six years later by theTreaty of Stolbovo. The conflict led to further depopulation: the number of homesteads in the city decreased from 1158 in 1607 to only 493 in 1617, with the Sofia side described as 'deserted'.[34][35]Novgorod only regained a measure of its former prosperity towards the end of the century, when such ambitious buildings as the Cathedral of the Sign and theVyazhischi Monasterywere constructed. The most famous of Muscovite patriarchs,Nikon, was active in Novgorod between 1648 and 1652. The Novgorod Land became one of the Old Believers' strongholds after theSchism.[32]The city remained an important trade centre even though it was now eclipsed byArchangelsk, Novgorodian merchants were trading in the Baltic cities and Stockholm while Swedish merchants came to Novgorod where they had their own trading post since 1627.[36]Novgorod continued to be a major centre of crafts which employed the majority of its population. There were more than 200 distinct professions in 16th century. Bells, cannons and other arms were produced in Novgorod; its silversmiths were famous for theskan'technique used for religious items and jewellery. Novgorod chests were in widespread use all across Russia, including the Tsar's household and the northern monasteries.[37]
On August 15, 1941, duringWorld War II, the city was occupied by theGerman Army. Its historic monuments were systematically obliterated. TheRed Armyliberatedthe city on January 19, 1944. Out of 2,536 stone buildings, fewer than forty remained standing. After the war, thanks to plans laid down byAlexey Shchusev, the central part was gradually restored. In 1992, the chief monuments of the city and the surrounding area were inscribed on the UNESCOWorld Heritage Sitelist as theHistoric Monuments of Novgorod and Surroundings. In 1999, the city was officially renamed Veliky Novgorod (literally, Great Novgorod),[38]thus partly reverting to its medieval title "Lord Novgorod the Great". This reduced the temptation to confuse Veliky Novgorod withNizhny Novgorod, a larger city the other side of Moscow which, between 1932 and 1990, had been renamed Gorky, in honour ofMaxim Gorky.
The city is known for the variety and age of its medieval monuments. The foremost among these is theSt. Sophia Cathedral, built between 1045 and 1050 under the patronage of Vladimir Yaroslavich, the son ofYaroslav the Wise; Vladimir and his mother,Anna Porphyrogenita, are buried in the cathedral.[39]It is one of the best preserved churches from the 11th century. It is also probably the oldest structure still in use in Russia and the first one to represent original features of Russian architecture (austere stone walls, five helmet-like domes). Its frescoes were painted in the 12th century originally on the orders of Bishop Nikita (died 1108) (the "porches" or side chapels were painted in 1144 underArchbishop Nifont) and renovated several times over the centuries, most recently in the nineteenth century.[40]The cathedral features famous bronze gates, which now hang in the west entrance, allegedly made inMagdeburgin 1156 (other sources see them originating fromPłockinPoland) and reportedly snatched by Novgorodians from the Swedish town ofSigtunain 1187. More recent scholarship has determined that the gates were most likely purchased in the mid-15th century, apparently at the behest of ArchbishopEuthymius II(1429–1458), a lover of Western art and architectural styles.[41]
TheNovgorod Kremlin, traditionally known as theDetinets, also contains the oldest palace in Russia (the so-called Chamber of the Facets, 1433), which served as the main meeting hall of the archbishops; the oldest Russian bell tower (mid-15th century), and the oldest Russian clock tower (1673). The Palace of Facets, the bell tower, and the clock tower were originally built on the orders of Archbishop Euphimius II, although the clock tower collapsed in the 17th century and had to be rebuilt and much of the palace of Euphimius II is no longer standing. Among later structures, the most remarkable are a royal palace (1771) and a bronze monument to theMillennium of Russia, representing the most important figures from the country's history (unveiled in 1862).
Outside the Kremlin walls, there are three large churches constructed during the reign ofMstislav the Great.St. Nicholas Cathedral(1113–1123), containing frescoes of Mstislav's family, gracesYaroslav's Court(formerly the chief square of Novgorod). TheYuriev Monastery(one of the oldest in Russia, 1030) contains a tall, three-domed cathedral from 1119 (built by Mstislav's son,Vsevolod, and Kyurik, the head of the monastery). A similar three-domed cathedral (1117), probably designed by the same masters, stands in theAntoniev Monastery, built on the orders ofAntony, the founder of that monastery.
There are now some fifty medieval and early modern churches scattered throughout the city and its surrounding areas.[42]Some of them were blown up by the Nazis and subsequently restored. The most ancient pattern is represented by those dedicated toSaints Pyotr and Pavel(on the Swallow's Hill, 1185–1192), to Annunciation (in Myachino, 1179), to Assumption (onVolotovo Field, 1180s) and to St. Paraskeva-Piatnitsa (atYaroslav's Court, 1207). The greatest masterpiece of early Novgorod architecture is theSavior church at Nereditsa(1198).
In the 13th century, tiny churches of the three-paddled design were in vogue. These are represented by a small chapel at thePeryn Monastery(1230s) and St. Nicholas' on the Lipnya Islet (1292, also notable for its 14th-century frescoes). The next century saw the development of two original church designs, one of them culminating inSt Theodor's church(1360–1361, fine frescoes from 1380s), and another one leading to theSavior church on Ilyina street(1374, painted in 1378 byFeofan Grek). TheSavior' church in Kovalevo(1345) was originally frescoed bySerbianmasters, but the church was destroyed during the war. While the church has since been rebuilt, the frescoes have not been restored.
During the last century of the republican government, some new churches were consecrated to Saints Peter and Paul (on Slavna, 1367; in Kozhevniki, 1406), to Christ's Nativity (at the Cemetery, 1387), toSt. John the Apostle's(1384), to the Twelve Apostles (1455), to St Demetrius (1467), to St. Simeon (1462), and other saints. Generally, they are not thought[by whom?]to be as innovative as the churches from the previous period. Several shrines from the 12th century (i.e., in Opoki) were demolished brick by brick and then reconstructed exactly as they used to be, several of them in the mid-fifteenth century, again under Archbishop Yevfimy II (Euthymius II), perhaps one of the greatest patrons of architecture in medieval Novgorod.
Novgorod's conquest byIvan IIIin 1478 decisively changed the character of local architecture. Large commissions were thenceforth executed by Muscovite masters and patterned after cathedrals ofMoscow Kremlin: e.g., the Savior Cathedral ofKhutyn Monastery(1515), the Cathedral of the Mother of God of the Sign (1688), the St. Nicholas Cathedral of Vyaschizhy Monastery (1685). Nevertheless, the styles of some parochial churches were still in keeping with local traditions: e.g., the churches of Myrrh-bearing Women (1510) and of Saints Boris and Gleb(1586).
In Vitoslavlitsy, along theVolkhov Riverand theMyachino Lake, close to theYuriev Monastery, a museum of wooden architecture was established in 1964. Over twenty wooden buildings (churches, houses and mills) dating from the 14th to the 19th century were transported there from all around the Novgorod region.
The city's former commercial airportYurievowas decommissioned in 2006, and the area has now been redeveloped into a residential neighbourhood. The still existingKrechevitsy Airportdoes not serve any regular flights since mid-1990s although there is a plan to turnKrechevitsyinto a new operational airport by 2025.[44]The nearest international airport is St. Petersburg'sPulkovo, some 180 kilometres (112 miles) north of the city.
Local transportation consists of a network of buses andtrolleybuses. The trolleybus network, which currently consists of five routes, started operating in 1995 and is the first trolley system opened in Russia after the fall of theSoviet Union.
